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Copper
- Copper has been used for over 7,000 years. Today worldwide copper consumption continues to increase every year. The mining industry is struggling to find new supplies of this critical component of modern industry.
Copper is traded around the world with the principal trading occurring on the London Metal Exchange.
Commercial sources of copper are found in deposits formed under the earth's surface as the result of early volcanic disturbances. Primary ores, called sulphide ores, formed when molten solutions flowed into the earth's crust. Secondary ores, called oxide ores, were formed as weather and other natural forces altered ancient rocks. Both sulphide and oxide ores are mined and processed to extract copper metal. After hundreds of years of exploration and mining, new copper deposits are becoming much more difficult to find.
- Copper is the standard benchmark for electrical conductivity. It conducts electrical current better than any other metal except silver.
- Copper is routinely refined to 99.98% purity before it is acceptable for many electrical applications.
- Number 12 (AWG) copper wire is the most common size used for branch circuit wiring in buildings.
- There's more than 50 pounds of copper in a typical automobile: about 40 pounds for electrical and about 10 pounds for nonelectrical components. Today's luxury cars, on average, contain some 1,500 copper wires totaling about one mile in length, thanks to continuing improvements in electronics and the addition of power accessories
- About 2% (9,000 pounds) of the total weight of a Boeing 747-200 jet plane is copper. Included in that weight is 632,000 feet of copper wire.
- A typical, diesel-electric railroad locomotive uses about 11,000 pounds of copper.
- Pure copper's melting point is 1,981ºF (1,083ºC).
- Building construction accounts for more than 40% of all copper use. Residential construction is about two-thirds of the USA building construction market. The average USA single-family home is about 2,100 sq .ft. and uses 439 pounds of copper. An average USA multifamily unit is about 1,000 sq. ft. and uses 278 pounds of copper
- There are probably about a billion doorknobs in the USA weighing in with about 500-600 million pounds of copper. There is an average of 50-55 electrical outlets per home and some 15-20 switches. That translates to between 2½ and 3 pounds of copper alloy for these uses per house
- Twenty-four carat gold is not pure. Because gold is so soft it can be molded with the hands, a small amount of copper must be added to make it usable.
- The U.S. penny contains only 2.6% copper. In 1982, the U.S. Mint converted production of the 95% copper coin to a predominantly zinc alloy, but coated it with copper to preserve its appearance
- The U.S. nickel is actually 75% copper. The dime, quarter, and half dollar coins contain 91.67% copper and the Susan B. Anthony dollar is comprised of 87.5% copper.
- Brasses and Bronzes are probably the most well-known families of copper-base alloys. Brasses are mainly copper and zinc. Bronzes are mainly copper along with alloying elements such as tin, aluminum, silicon or beryllium.
- A leaded yellow brass, C36000, also known as Copper Alloy 360 is so easy to machine, it is the benchmark standard for metals machinability.
- Copper is man's oldest metal, dating back more than 10,000 years. A copper pendant discovered in what is now northern Iraq goes back to about 8700 B.C.
- The H.M.S. Beagle, used by Charles Darwin for his historic voyages around the world, was built in 1825 with copper skins below the water line. The copper sheathing extended hull life and protected against barnacles and other kinds of biofouling. Today most seagoing vessels use a copper-containing paint for hull protection.
- One of the famous Dead Sea Scrolls found in Israel is made of copper instead of more fragile animal skins. The scroll contains no biblical passages or religious writings - only clues to a still undiscovered treasure.
- Archeologists have recovered a portion of a water plumbing system from the Pyramid of Cheops in Egypt. The copper tubing used was found in serviceable condition after more than 5,000 years.
- Copper cookware is the most highly regarded by chefs around the world. Its noted advantages - high heat transfer (the highest of any material used in cooking) plus uniform heating (no hot spots). Restaurateurs, hoteliers and interior decorators look to copper and brass as naturally inviting metals that make a statement of quality, comfort and beauty.
- Some things never change! Ten thousand years ago, cave dwellers used copper axes as weapons and tools for survival. Today, high tech surgeons save lives and precious blood by using copper-clad scalpels. The copper conducts an electric current that heats the scalpel to make it self-cauterizing.
Platinum
- Platinum, with its natural white lustre, is probably best known for its use in jewellery. However, jewellery only represents about 40% of the overall platinum use. Around 37% are used for catalytic converters, with the remaining approximately 23% being used in other industrial applications around the world.
- Platinum and its relatives, iridium and osmium, are the most dense metals known to man (platinum is nearly twice as dense as lead and 11% more dense than gold). Platinum has a high melting point and temperature stability, a great corrosion resistance, and it is a good oxidation catalyst, conductive and oxidation resistant. Most amazingly, platinum in certain compounds can inhibit the growth of cancerous cell growth, and because it is biologically compatible it is an important component in many medical applications.
- Platinum contributes to environmental protection in a number of ways. As already mentioned its efficiency as a catalyst is employed in motor cars, greatly reducing air pollution and greenhouse gases. It also makes a major contribution to waste reduction as its durability and strength mean that goods containing platinum are more reliable and longer-lasting than those containing non-PGM metals. Furthermore, the high recyclability of PGMs means they can be reused many times, which minimizes their load on the environment.
- Pre-Columbian South American Indians are known to have found ways to use platinum for decorative purposes.
- The first known example of platinum goes back to prehistoric times in South America - where a small head statue is known to have been shaped out of the metal. Awareness in Europe dates back to 1557 to a French-Italian scientist Julius Scaliger who was in Central America when large deposits of the metal were discovered in South America by the Conquistadors. It's from this discovery that platinum got its name, from platina - the Spanish word for "little silver".
- However, it was not until samples began arriving in Europe in the middle of the 18th Century, that processes to melt and refine platinum were applied. In 1801, English physician William Hyde Wollaston obtained the first pure sample and his methods still form the basis of the techniques which produce platinum today.
- Wollaston's discovery was an immediate commercial success and he and his collaborators went on to isolate other platinum group metals (PGMs). In 1824, the Ural Mountains were found to harbour significant platinum deposits and by the end of the 19th Century, a new jewellery style had developed combining the "new" metal with diamonds from recently discovered mines in South Africa.
- In 1924 South Africa became a rich source of platinum itself when German geologist Hans Merensky discovered there the largest deposits ever found.
- The Second World War brought great restrictions on the use of platinum as it was needed in armaments and it wasn't until late in the 20th Century that its popularity as a choice for jewellery returned.
- Supplies of platinum are forecast to rise by 5 per cent in 2006, to a new record of 7 million oz. 2006 will see considerable growth in production from South Africa with the opening of new mines at Everest South and Two Rivers, and expansion at Anglo Platinum.
- Russian sales are expected to rise slightly from last year to 895,000 oz.
- Platinum production in North America is anticipated to remain unchanged in 2006.
- The platinum market will therefore be in a modest deficit of 20,000 oz for 2006, despite a decline in global jewellery demand.
- In 2006, demand for platinum is forecast to increase by 5 per cent from 6.69 million oz in 2005 to a record level of 7.02 million oz.
- Purchases of platinum for use in autocatalysts is expected to climb by 15 per cent to a new high of 4.38 million oz in 2006. European auto catalyst demand for platinum again grew strongly and reached a new high of 2.25 million oz. This rising demand was powered by higher diesel car sales and tightening diesel emissions limits linked to the introduction of Euro IV standards. In North American, the auto industry purchased 16 per cent more platinum in 2006 than the year before. For China and the rest of the world (excluding North America, Europe and Japan) the demand of platinum for the use in auto catalysts grew by 37 per cent to 615,000 oz
- Industrial demand for platinum is expected to rise by 6 per cent to 1.76 million oz in 2006. Growth in the chemical, electronics and petroleum sectors will outweigh small declines elsewhere
Palladium
- Like platinum, palladium has a natural white lustre. Although it has the lowest melting point of all platinum group metals (PGMs) and is also the least dense, palladium's remarkable qualities mean that it is no less crucial in a number of important applications
- Its melting point is still high compared with other popular metals (for example, over four and half times that of lead) and it has high temperature stability and corrosion resistance. The rarest of all PGMs apart from iridium, palladium is also a good oxidation catalyst, conductive, oxidation resistant and ductile when annealed
- But its most incredible property is the ability to absorb 900 times its own volume of hydrogen at room temperature. This makes palladium an efficient and safe hydrogen storage medium and purifier. It is also used in chemical processes that require hydrogen exchange between two reactants, such as that which produces butadiene and cyclohexane, the raw materials for synthetic rubber and nylo
- Palladium's catalytic qualities find it playing a key role in catalytic converters and air purification equipment. Its chemical stability and electrical conductivity make it a more effective and durable plating than gold in electronic components
- It took nearly two centuries for palladium's significance to be recognised - and the fight against global pollution owes a lot to this unique metal
- The use of palladium really took off in the 1970s when demand for catalytic converters - in which its remarkable properties play a key role - increased as automobile emission standards were introduced in the developed world. As these standards were tightened and applied globally in the 90s, demand for palladium expanded exponentially
- South African output of palladium is forecast to grow 250,000 oz to 2.86 million oz as expansions in mining capacity proceed more quickly than in 2005
- Total Russian palladium supply is again expected to be above production, at 4.37 million oz
- North American shipments will climb by 6 per cent to 955,000 oz. Palladium output from Zimbabwe and the Rest of the World will also increase by 20,000 oz in 2006 to 300,000 oz
- Demand for palladium from the autocatalyst sector increased by 7 per cent to 4.14 million oz in 2006. The largest increase in purchases came from the Japanese auto industry, up 15 per cent, as a result of continuous substitution of palladium for platinum
- Demand for palladium in electronic applications grew to 1.055 million oz in 2006, an increase of 9 per cent, driven by strong consumer demand for portable electronic devices
Nickel
- Nickel makes up 0.008% of the Earth's crust. When the deeper core of the Earth is included, nickel becomes more abundant, ranking as the fifth most common element after iron, oxygen, silicon and magnesium.
- Nickel is economically extracted from deposits of nickel-bearing minerals in the Earth's crust, which, over geological time, have concentrated nickel into relatively small areas near to the surface in what are known as orebodies. Ore minerals are combinations of nickel and other elements, such as iron, sulphur, cobalt and oxygen, that can be extracted economically. Nickel ores are found in many countries, but the principal nickel mining areas are Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Colombia, Cuba, Greece, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Southern Africa and Russia. Important nickel refineries also operate in Norway, Finland, France, Japan and the United Kingdom.
- Nickel is of considerable economic and strategic importance to many countries, as can be appreciated from the wide diversity of end-use industries which it serves.
- To meet the growing need for nickel-containing alloys and products, world production of nickel grew dramatically during the 20th century and currently stands at around 1 million tonnes per annum. It is also traded on the London Metal Exchange.
- The world's producers sell nickel in many forms, as sheets, powders, pellets, ingots, etc., to thousands of buyers. About 85% of this nickel is used in combination with other metals to make what are known as alloys. These substances have their own physical and mechanical properties which are distinct from those of their constituent elements. Alloys that contain nickel include hundreds of different grades of stainless steels, hundreds of different nickel alloys, many alloy steels, and a few copper-nickel alloys. About 65% of nickel is used to make stainless steel, the most common grades of which contain 8% to 12% nickel.
- Stainless steels have a total production volume approaching 20 million tonnes per annum. This family of materials now consists of more than 100 separate grades offering a wide range of attractive properties, which, in turn, results in even greater diversity of use. As a result of new technology, the manufacture of stainless steel has become increasingly efficient and economical, rendering it competitive with alternative materials.
- The rise in the number of emerging applications of stainless steel, combined with its rapidly improving price-competitiveness, largely accounts for a sustained underlying growth rate of some 5% to 6% per annum for this material.
- Non-alloy applications for nickel include various types of plating and chemical applications, notably batteries and catalysts.
Uranium
- As a key ingredient in the generation of nuclear power, uranium is widely accepted as the fuel of the future. As a fuel, it is long-lasting and emissions-free; one tonne of natural uranium produces more than 40 million kilowatt hours of electricity and is equivalent to burning 16,000 tonnes of coal, or 80,000 barrels of oil.
- Occurring naturally in the earth's crust, uranium is a metal that can be found virtually everywhere, but not always in economically, mineable concentrations. The largest uranium producing countries in the world are Canada, Australia, Kazakhstan, Russian Federation, Niger and Nambia, and Mega Uranium is actively exploring properties in some of these areas.
- In early 2003, the price of uranium was approximately $10.75 per pound. By early 2007, the price had risen to approximately $90.00 per pound. Driving this demand is the renaissance of nuclear power, seen as a clean, reliable, base-load generating technology. Growth in energy needs, primarily from China and India, combined with environmental concerns over energy produced from fossil fuels is expected to continue to push future demand for nuclear power even higher. According to experts there are approximately 443 nuclear reactors currently in operation supplying 16% of the world's electricity. With another 250 nuclear reactors under construction, planned or proposed, the demand for uranium is expected to increase significantly from the current 170 million pound range to the 250 million pound range by 2030.
- On the supply side, the flooding of multiple projects, caused a significant delay in timing of future and existing uranium production. Global uranium production in 2006 was roughly 100 million pounds and according to some sources production is expected to increase by 15% in 2007. The current short fall between supply and demand is being filled by secondary sources of uranium that are quickly depleting. Unless a significant number of additional mines are brought to production soon, energy analysts predict a global uranium shortage over the next decade and beyond.
Source:
Related Property: |
World Nuclear Association, World Nuclear Power Reactors 2005-07 and Uranium Requirements
Bear Valley, Nunavut, Canada |
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Iron Ore
- Iron is a common metal found in the earth's crust, where it occurs in combination with other elements. The term "iron ore" is used when the rock is sufficiently rich in iron minerals to be mined economically. Iron ore yields metallic iron (Fe) when heated in the presence of a reducing agent such as coke. Iron ore usually consists of iron oxides and carbonates.
- Its most important mineral forms are magnetite (Fe3O4, 72.4% Fe), hematite (Fe2O3, 69.9% Fe) and siderite (FeCO3, 48.29% Fe). In Brazil, some ore that contains practically no other minerals can grade as high as 68% Fe, but the crude ore mined in Canada grades between 30 and 44% Fe. Therefore, these mines crush and grind the ore, then use gravitational and magnetic concentration methods to produce concentrates with an iron content of about 65%. Depending on grain size, the concentrate is then shipped as is, or agglomerated into balls about a centimetre in diameter and fired to produce hard iron ore pellets. Steel companies take the pellets and coke made from COAL and load them into blast furnaces, where the minerals are reduced to metallic iron. Unpelletized concentrate received at steel plants is sintered before being charged to the blast furnace.
- Iron ore, along with COPPER and coal, was one of the first mineral resources mined in Canada. The smelting and casting of iron was Canada's first industry. Before European settlements were established, there is evidence of Inuit exploitation of iron meteorites for metal. In the 13th century at the Viking settlement at L'ANSE AUX MEADOWS, local bog iron was roasted and wrought to make nails for ships. In about 1670, deposits of bog iron were found near Trois-Rivières, Qué, and by the 1740s LES FORGES SAINT-MAURICE was producing top-quality cast iron stoves, pots, kettles, bullets and cannons. Today, steel manufacturing is one of Canada's few major industries that are largely Canadian owned. There are iron ore producers in Newfoundland, Québec and BC.
- Canada produces approximately 35 million tonnes of iron ore annually. Countries that Canada exports to include Germany, UK, US, Japan, China, South Korea and the Philippines.
Vanadium
Vanadium is soft and ductile metal that has good resistance to corrosion. It has good structural strength and is principally used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive to add strength to the steel. It is also used in other alloys such as specialty stainless steel for surgical instruments, rust resistant and high speed tool steels, and mixed with aluminum in titanium alloys used in jet engines and high-speed airframes.Vanadium steel alloys are used in axles, crankshafts, gears, and other critical components.
Approximately 80% of vanadium produced is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive. Other uses:
- In such alloys as
- specialty stainless steel, e.g. for use in surgical instruments and tools.
- rust resistant and high speed tool steels.
- mixed with aluminium in titanium alloys used in jet engines and high-speed airframes
- Vanadium steel alloys are used in axles, crankshafts, gears, and other critical components.
- It is an important carbide stabilizer in making steels.
- Because of its low fission neutron cross section, vanadium has nuclear applications.
- Vanadium foil is used in cladding titanium to steel.
- Vanadium-gallium tape is used in superconducting magnets (175,000 gauss).
- Vanadium pentoxide V2O5 is used as a catalyst in manufacturing sulfuric acid (via the contact process) and maleic anhydride. It is also used in making ceramics.
- Glass coated with vanadium dioxide VO2 can block infrared radiation (and not visible light) at a specific temperature.
- Electrical fuel cells and storage batteries such as vanadium redox batteries.
- Added to corundum to make simulated alexandrite jewelry.
- Vanadate electrochemical conversion coatings for protecting steel against rust and corrosion
- Used to make lacrosse shafts
Titanium
Approximately 95% of titanium production is consumed as titanium dioxide. Titanium dioxide is primarily used as white pigment in paints, coatings, plastics, papers, inks, foods, and most toothpastes. It is also used in cosmetics and skin care products and sunblock. Titanium has high strength and lightweight and can withstand extreme temperatures. Titanium alloys (particularly with vanadium) are used in aircraft manufacture, for example, newer models of aircraft like the A380 may consume up to 77 tons of the metal.
- Titanium's physical qualities of high strength, toughness, durability, low density, corrosion resistance and biological compatibility make it useful in a variety of applications.
- Discovered in the late 1500's, titanium was named for the mythological giants, the Titans. In the 1940's, it was used by the space and defense industries. Today, titanium is used in aerospace applications, automobiles, prosthetics, buildings, and sporting equipment.
- Titanium is a paradox. Supplies of pure titanium are rare, though titanium ores such as ilmenite and rutile are very common. There is more titanium in the earth's crust than there is nickel, zinc, chromium, tin, lead, mercury, and manganese combined! The ores of these metals are concentrated in large, easily mined bodies, while titanium ores are dispersed throughout the earth's crust.
- Only five percent of the titanium mined today is used in its pure metal form. The remainder is used to manufacture titanium dioxide (TiO2), an ingredient in paper, paint, plastics and white food coloring (including the coloring that is used to print the "m"s on M&M(tm) candies).
- Titanium, which weighs forty percent less than carbon steels, can be strengthened by alloying it with elements such as aluminum and vanadium. Titanium is nonmagnetic and possesses good heat transfer properties. It has the ability to passivate, thereby giving it a corrosion resistance to acids. It is also nontoxic and biocompatible. These properties make titanium and its alloys useful in a wide range of structural, chemical, petrochemical, marine and biomaterial applications.
- The most widely used titanium alloy, Ti-6Al-4V, is present in forty-five percent of industrial applications. The unique combination of this alloy's physical and mechanical properties with workability, fabricability, production experience and commercial availability allows it to be economically useful. Some uses of this alloy are aircraft gas turbine disks and blades, airframe structural components, and prosthetic devices. Ti-6Al-4V has become the standard alloy against which other alloys are compared in the process of selecting a titanium alloy for a specific application.
- Titanium also is valued in the petrochemical industry, where it is used in heat exchangers and reactors. The automotive industry uses it in automotive components including connecting rods, valves, and suspension springs. The sporting goods industry uses the metal in the manufacture of bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, and wheelchairs designed for disabled people who want to participate in a sport.
- Titanium is used in condensers and turbine blades in electric power plants. It is also incorporated into the architecture of buildings, roofs, piping and cable.
- Because of its corrosion resistance, titanium and its alloys are used extensively in prosthetic devices such as artificial heart pumps, pacemaker cases, heart-valve parts and load bearing bone or hip-joint replacements or bone splints. Human body fluids are essentially chloride brines with pH values ranging from 7.4 into the acidic range and also contain a variety of organic acids and other media, to which titanium is totally immune.
- Since titanium does not become magnetized, it is used in the structural parts surrounding computer components such as disk drives and microchips, which can be ruined by stray magnetism.
- Other common applications of titanium include shape memory eyeglass frames, watches and jewelry.
- So although titanium deposits in the earth's crust are rare, titanium has abundant applications in industry and commercial enterprises. This metal makes white whiter, strengthens buildings, functions in prosthetics, and even increases the performance of sporting equipment to improve a game of golf or tennis.
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